A multiform energy transition: typifying wind and solar energy-land systems in Portugal

Abstract. The expansion of solar and wind power creates complex "energy-land systems" defined by interactions between governance, land use, and energy production. While critical for the energy transition, utility-scale projects often face social contestation rooted in the socio-ecological marginalization of rural areas. Addressing these challenges requires a granular, nationwide understanding of renewable energy systems and their local contexts. Focusing on Portugal, we categorized 760 renewable energy projects and used multivariate cluster analysis to identify 18 energy-land system types. Deployment contexts were analysed using indicators of socio-ecological marginalization, including land degradation, energy poverty, income levels, demographic dynamics, and land prices. Our findings reveal that geography and scale are primary drivers of energy-land system diversity. Wind systems in the North favour co-location (e.g., pasture, beekeeping) and co-governance (e.g., protected areas, commons), while solar systems in the South are distinguished by production levels and externality mitigation.

Furthermore, we found that large-scale projects are frequently located in highly marginalized regions and incorporate more socio-ecological measures. Conversely, smaller utility-scale projects tend to occupy more productive, less marginalized land. These patterns illustrate trade-offs between deployment strategies—such as few large projects versus several small ones—with direct implications for energy policies. To our knowledge, this study presents the first nationwide analysis of energy-land systems, providing a replicable approach for system characterization. By adopting a land-system perspective, this research supports planning decisions aimed at creating multifunctional, equitable systems that better align rural needs with the requirements of the energy transition across various scales.